• LORAN-C (Long Range Navigation, Version C):
  • Operates on 90-110 kHz Low Frequency spectrum
  • Widely used in maritime navigation
  • Coverage suitable for navigation in all of conterminous United States, and parts of Canada and Alaska
  • System status available from USCG Navigation Center, Alexandria, VA (703)313-5900
  • Accuracy to .25 NM
  • Within a given chain of transmitters, there is one master station and three to five secondary stations
    • Must receive at least a master and two secondary stations to be usable
  • Many units contain large databases
    • Many permit pilot defined waypoints
  • Disadvantages:
    • Subject to signal degradation from atmospheric disturbances
    • Subject to signal degradation from static electricity buildup on airframe and electrically “noisy” airframe equipment
  • Request LORAN-C NOTAMS before navigation

See AFH C. 14-24

• 200-415 kHz
• See AFD for chosen NDB frequency
• 3-letter Morse Code station ID, 2-letter station ID for Compass Locater
• Advantage over VOR:
  • Low-medium frequencies follow curvature of Earth
    • Can receive signal within range regardless of altitude
• Service volumes for Compass Locater, MH, H, HH
• Disadvantages of NDB/ADF:
  • Susceptible to electrical disturbances (i.e. Lightning)
  • No Nav Flag
  • ADF only indicates bearings directly to or from the station
• Relative Bearing, Magnetic Bearing (MB = RB + MH)
• Tracking vs. Homing

See PHAN C. 14-22 to 14-25

• VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR)
• 2 Components required: Ground transmitter and airborne reciever
• 4 Components of aircraft’s VOR navigation instrument
• VOR, VOR/DME, VORTAC
• 108.0-117.95 Mhz
• Service volumes for T(Terminal), L(Low Alt), H(High Alt)
• VOR Checks and tolerances
  • VOT
  • Airborne Checkpoint
  • Ground Checkpoint
  • Dual VOR
• Tracking vs. Homing
• Procedures for intercepting a radial
• DME
• VOR/DME RNAV

See PHAN C. 14-18 to 14-20

See PHAN Figure 14-28

• Unusual attitude is any attitude not normally required for flight
• Effective instrument scan will allow for quick detection of unusual attitude
• When unusual attitude is encountered, increase speed of scan, and execute recovery procedures as outlined in the AFM/POH
• Recovery from nose-high attitudes:
  • Add power
  • Lower nose
  • Level wings
• Recovery from nose-low attitudes:
  • Reduce power
  • Level wings
  • Raise nose
• During recovery, look for stabilization or slight reversal in instrument indication trends

During Flight:

• Instructor demonstrates entry and recovery while student watches
• After demonstration, student closes eyes and puts his head down while instructor enters unusual attitude, instructor then tells student to recover and student executes appropriate recovery procedures

See IFH C. 5-31 to 5-32

• For small heading changes, use a bank angle that doesn’t exceed degrees to be turned
• Lead desired heading and begin roll-out apprx. ½ the bank angle in degrees
• Perfect this technique to determine appropriate lead for current aircraft
• Timed Turns:
  • Calibrate turn coordinator to determine actual std. turn indication (establish std. rate turn and check headings at chosen time intervals)
    • Note correct deflection of turn coordinator required for std. rate and use that in all std. rate turns
  • 3* per second at standard rate
  • See IFH Figure 5-34 for primary and supporting instruments
• Compass Turns:
  • Compass Errors:
    • Variation
      • Isogonic and Agonic lines
      • Conversion from True to Magnetic North
    • Deviation
    • Magnetic Dip
      • Caused by vertical component of Earth’s flux lines
      • Acceleration/Deceleration Error (ANDS in the Northern Hemisphere)
      • Turning Error (UNOS in the Northern Hemisphere)
        • Magnitude is apprx. equal to current latitude for N or S

During Flight:

• Instructor will check heading indicator for accuracy of student’s turns
• Student will perform maneuver as covered before flight
• Student will perform maneuver with partial panel

See IFH C. 5-23

• Climbs:
  • Under given power setting and load condition, only one attitude will give most efficient climbs
  • Entry:
    • From cruising airspeed, raise mini aircraft to approximate nose-high indication for predetermined climb speed
    • Power may be set to climb power simultaneously, or after pitch change
    • See IFH Figure 5-25 for Primary and Supporting Instruments
  • Stabilized Climb at Constant Airspeed:
    • See IFH Figure 5-26 for primary and supporting instruments
  • Leveling Off:
    • Level off before reaching desired altitude (lead by 10% VS)
    • To level off at climb airspeed, reduce power simultaneously with pitch change
    • See IFH Figure 5-29 for primary and supporting instruments
• Descents:
  • Entry:
    • Reduce power first to descent speed and then pitch to maintain that speed
    • Any airspeed deviation calls for pitch adjustment
    • See IFH Figure 5-30 for primary and supporting instruments
  • Leveling Off:
    • Apprx. 100-150 feet above altitude, set cruise power (for level flight at higher than descent speed)
    • Begin to level-off 50 feet above altitude
    • To level-off at descent airspeed, level-off and set cruise power at 50 feet above altitude
    • See IFH Figures 5-31 and 5-32 for primary and supporting instruments

• Instructor ensures student follows procedures outlined before flight

See Instrument Flying Handbook C. 5-16 to 5-22

• Attitude indicator as Direct Indication of pitch attitude in level flight
  • Must be adjusted according to other direct indications of level flight
• Altimeter as Indirect Indication of pitch attitude in level flight
  • Rate of change indicates magnitude of deviation from level attitude

During Flight:

• Instructor or student adjusts pitch based on AI to observe relationship between AI position changes and actual aircraft pitch changes
  • Use half-bar-width, full-bar-width, and one-and-one-half-bar-width adjustments on AI to demonstrate this
• Instructor ensures student has relaxed grip on controls to allow for better feel of subtle control pressure changes
• Instructor ensures student is using trim properly by having student release controls occasionally
• Instructor or student adjusts pitch and observes resultant altimeter rate-of-change

See Instrument Flying Handbook C.5

• Review aircraft V-speeds
• Review stalls/spins

During Flight:

• Slow flight should be practiced from:
  • Straight glides
  • Straight-and-level flight
  • Medium banked gliding
  • Level flight turns
• Slow flight at approach speed should include configuration changes while maintaining heading and altitude

See AFH C. 4-1 to 4-3

• Determine if aircraft is approved for spins
• Determine weight and balance limitations
• Cover entry and recovery procedures
• Secure loose items in aircraft
• Four Spin phases:
• Entry
• Incipient
  • From time airplane stalls and rotation starts until spin has fully developed (may be up to two rotations)
  • Aerodynamic and inertial forces have yet to achieve balance
• Developed
  • Aerodynamic and inertial forces balanced
  • Rotation rate, airspeed, vertical speed stabilized
  • Flight path nearly vertical
• Recovery
  • Follow manufacturers recommendations, otherwise:
    • Idle throttle
    • Ailerons neutral
    • Full opposite rudder
    • Forward elevator pressure
    • Neutralize rudder after rotation stops
    • Apply back elevator pressure
• In aircraft placarded against spins, there is no assurance that recovery from a fully developed spin is possible

• Clear area
• Review stalls
• Altitude high enough for recovery completion no lower than 1500′ AGL
• Instructor demonstrates, then student performs maneuver

See AFH C. 6

• Review stalls
• Review recovery procedures
• Secondary stalls occur as a result of attempt to hasten stall recovery

During Flight:

• Instructor demonstrates, then student performs maneuver

See AFH C. 4-3 to 4-12