• Review S-Turn principles
• Review applicable aircraft performance information
• Maximum bank during the maneuver should not exceed 45°

During Flight:

• Student will select a specific point, such as isolated trees, crossroads, or other small landmarks
• Student will enter the maneuver downwind and a selected distance from the reference point
• Student will fly a circle around the selected point while remaining the same distance from that point all the way around the circle using changing bank angles to correct for wind

See AFH C. 6-7

See AFH Figure 6-6

• Review principles learned during Rectangular course
• Review applicable aircraft performance information
• Bank will be steepest downwind, and shallowest upwind during turns
• Constant altitude should be maintained throughout maneuver
• Aircraft should trace a perfect S over the ground if done correctly
• It helps to pick ground points at the 90° point in both turns that are the same distance from the straight-line reference as aiming points to fly over

During Flight:

• Select a straight ground reference line, such as a road, as close to perpendicular to the wind as possible
• Check area for obstructions or other aircraft
• Approach the road from upwind
• Begin a 180° turn so that the aircraft is flying perpendicular to the road in the opposite direction and wings are level as the aircraft crosses the road
• Immediately begin another 180° turn in the opposite direction so that the radius is the same as the first turn

See AFH C. 6-6

See AFH Figure 6-5

• Review applicable aircraft performance information
• Airspeed and altitude should be held constant during maneuver
• Bank should normally not exceed 45° during maneuver
• All turns should be started when aircraft is abeam the corner of the field boundaries
• Anticipate turns based on groundspeed and turning radius

During Flight:

• Select rectangular field, or area bounded on four sides by section lines or roads about a mile in length
• Aircraft should be flown parallel to and apprx. ¼ – ½ mile outside of rectangle so that it may easily be seen by both pilots
• Enter the maneuver 45° to downwind and fly first leg downwind
• Make first turn when aircraft is abeam the corner of the field boundaries and time the turn so that wings level when abeam the corner of the field boundary
• Continue this process around the field maintaining the same distance from the field boundaries by correcting for wind
• Exit the maneuver at the completion of the downwind leg

See AFH C. 6-4

See AFH Figure 6-4

• This maneuver is also valuable for remaining over selected spot in preparation for landing, especially emergencies
• Review appropriate aircraft performance information
• Steepest bank will be no more that 60°
• Altitude must be such that will allow three 360° turns
• Maneuver should not continue below 1000′ AGL
• Throttle should be advanced occasionally to prevent excessive engine cooling or spark plug fouling
• Constant airspeed should be held throughout the maneuver

During Flight:

• Point on ground should be selected prior to entry
• Throttle should be closed and a constant-radius circle should be drawn around the selected ground point
• Roll-out should be made on a selected heading or toward a selected reference point

See AFH C. 9-3

• Review appropriate aircraft performance information

During Flight:

• Altitude should not exceed 1000′ AGL except with large airplanes
• Close throttle abreast of desired landing spot and maintain altitude while slowing to 1.4 VSO or manufacturers glide speed
• Timing of turn to base depends on wind and altitude
• Upon turning final, aircraft should be aligned with the runway centerline, wing flaps should be lowered, and airspeed adjusted for 1.3 VSO
• Do not change flap settings during final to try to reach desired landing spot.
• Slips may be made on final

See AFH C. 8-23

• Pitch-pitch-bank

During Flight:

• Prominent reference points at 45°, 90°, 135° should be selected
• Airspace behind and above aircraft should be clear before maneuver
• Entered from straight-and-level at normal cruise power and airspeed recommended by manufacturer or at VA
• Roll into a climbing turn adding very small amount of bank at first and so that maximum pitch up is reached at 45°
• At 45° max pitch attitude should be reached and pitch should begin to decrease to be level with the horizon at the 90° point. Bank angle should be increasing at 45°.
• At 90° bank should be max at 30° and airspeed should be minimum at 5-10 kts. above stall
• From 90°, bank should be decreased gradually, and pitch attitude continuing to lower
• At 135°, pitch attitude should be lowest, and student should begin to increase pitch attitude and continue to decrease bank angle so that straight-and-level flight at the entry altitude and airspeed is reached
• Immediately upon reaching the 180° point, the procedure should be repeated in the opposite direction for the second half of the maneuver

See AFH C. 9-4

See AFH Figure 9-7

• Altitude gain will be dependent on weather conditions and so maximum gain for that day should be the goal
• Purpose is to demonstrate a maximum performance climbing turn
• Since airspeed is constantly decreasing, torque effects will become more prominent
• Rolling out of a left chandelle, adverse yaw will work in conjunction with torque to produce a strong left yawing force
  • Rolling out of a right chandelle, these two forces will tend to cancel each other out

During Flight:

• Airspace should be clear above and behind aircraft
• Flaps and gear up
• Power set to cruise
• Airspeed set to manufacturer’s recommendation or not above VA
• Smoothly increase bank angle to appropriate angle for maneuver
• After bank angle is reached, smoothly increase power to max allowable and increase pitch to attain highest pitch attitude as 90° of turn is completed
• Begin bank rollout at 90° point at a constant rate while maintaining constant pitch attitude
• At 180° point, bank should be 0° and aircraft should be at minimum controllable airspeed, pitch should be held momentarily at this speed and then smoothly released so that no altitude is lost

See AFH C. 9-4

• 45-60° bank angle
• Airspeed at or below VA
• 360* minimum
• An aircraft’s max performance turns limited by:
  • Power output
  • Limit load factor
  • Aerodynamic characteristics
• Stall speed increases with the square of the load factor

During Flight:

• Instructor demonstrates, then student executes maneuver
• Clear the area before maneuver
• Set airspeed to manufacturers recommended speed or VA before maneuver
• Smoothly roll into turn while adding up elevator pressure and increasing power to maintain altitude
• Rollout should be timed so that airplane is straight and level on entry heading
• As rollout begins, power should be reduced and up elevator pressure released

See AFH C. 9-1

See IFH C. 5-26

• RADAR – Radio Detection and Ranging
• Primary RADAR
  • How are range and azimuth determined?
  • Disadvantages:
    • Bending of RADAR pulses, or anomalous propagation, which can be caused by temperature inversions
    • Detection range reduced if beam bent upward
    • Precip. or heavy clouds can produce returns which block aircraft
    • Two main drawbacks are that Primary RADAR has difficulty easily identifying an individual aircraft return and difficulty displaying an aircraft’s altitude
• Air Traffic Control RADAR Beacon System (ATCRBS) or Secondary Surveillance RADAR
  • Overcomes most of Primary RADAR’s limitations
  • ATC typically uses Primary and Secondary RADAR together
  • Three Components in addition to Primary RADAR:
    • Decoder
    • Interrogator
    • Transponder
      • Inspections
      • Special Codes (7700, 7600, 7500, 1200)
• 2 FAA RADAR Systems:
  • Airport Surveillance RADAR (ASR)
    • Short-range
    • Terminal RADAR Approach Control Facilities (TRACONs)
    • Automated RADAR Terminal System (ARTS)
      • Automated computer used to perform tasks such as detect, track, and predict primary, as well as secondary, radar returns
  • Air Route Surveillance RADAR (ARSR)
    • Apprx. 100 ARSR sites
      • Some are Beacon only sites (can only receive transponder returns)
    • Air Route Traffic Control Centers (ARTCCs)

• VFR RADAR Services
  • RADAR Traffic Information Service or VFR Traffic Advisory Service or Flight Following
  • Safety Alerts
  • Vectors (advisory in nature)
  • Terminal VFR Radar Services (4 types)
    • Basic RADAR Service (Voluntary)
      • Safety Alerts
      • Traffic Advisories
      • Limited RADAR Vectoring
      • Sequencing at certain terminal areas
    • Terminal Radar Service Area (TRSA) (Voluntary)
    • Class C Service
    • Class B Service

See Jeppesen Private Pilot Manual C. 5, section A

• Worldwide satellite-based navigation
• Three major elements
  • Space segment
    • 26 satellites
    • Transmit via UHF (no weather interference, but subject to line-of-sight)
  • Control segment
    • Master control station at Falcon AFB, Colorado Springs, CO
    • Five monitor stations distributed around the Earth
    • Three ground antennas distributed around the Earth to update and correct data
  • User segment
    • GPS receivers calculate time-in-transit of signal sent by satellite based on time signal was sent, time it was received, and speed (speed of light)
• Must receive at least 3 satellite signals for navigation (4 for altitude)
• Many units contain extensive databases similar to LORAN-C
• Should obtain GPS NOTAMS before navigation
• Random Access Integrity Monitoring (RAIM)

See AFH C. 14-26